| In 1989 the chemistry professors Stanley Pons | | | | cathode, and oxygen at the anode. The deuterium |
| and Martin Fleishman reported that they had | | | | atoms went into the palladium crystal lattice in |
| achieved cold fusion in a palladium anode emerged | | | | great extend before combining to D2. |
| in a solution of sodium deuteroxide in heavy | | | | Excess heat was then produced in the electrolytic |
| water D2O. Due to a bad exactness of their | | | | cell, apart from the electrolytic heat. Helium, |
| report, only few other scientists managed to | | | | tritium and neutrons were also produced, but the |
| replicate their findings in the first place. The | | | | latter two products not in the amounts that would |
| findings were then dismissed as due to | | | | have been produced in a hot fusion. Therefore |
| misunderstandings and bad scientific practice, and | | | | the fusion reactions in the system are different |
| the matter of cold fusion has since been regarded | | | | form those in hot fusion, and probably more |
| as a taboo area. | | | | complicated. |
| However, some scientists did manage to replicate | | | | Only few scientists managed to reproduce the |
| the findings, and quietly an enormous amount of | | | | results in the first place, because of bad |
| positive research findings based on experiments | | | | documentation from the originators. However, |
| of a lot better quality have been published. The | | | | some of them succeeded, and gradually the |
| phenomenon is again becoming accepted as a | | | | conditions for a satisfactory fusion have been |
| legitimate field of research by steadily more | | | | established. The best fusion occurs when the |
| scientists. | | | | palladium is somewhat over-saturated, that is |
| However, what is really going on is not well | | | | when there are nearly as many atoms of |
| understood. Heat production, detected radiation | | | | deuterium as those of palladium in the crystal. |
| and detected fusion products suggest that some | | | | The saturation is controlled by the voltage applied, |
| kind of nuclear reaction or fusion takes place, but | | | | and by using palladium structures composed of |
| the reactions do not show the amount of | | | | very thin layers or very small grains. The |
| radiation and the ratios of products that known | | | | electrolysis in itself is only a means to put |
| hot fusion reactions do. Therefore other names | | | | deuterium into the palladium crystal matrix. |
| of the phenomenon are often used, like Low | | | | THERE ARE MANY WAYS OF OBTAINING COLD |
| Energy Nuclear Reactions or (LENR) or Chemically | | | | FUSION |
| Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR). | | | | As seen, cold fusion processes can be initiated by |
| WHAT IS FUSION | | | | packing many deuterium kernels into inter-atomic |
| By fusion two or more atomic nuclei, protons or | | | | rooms in a crystal lattice. A critical density for |
| neutrons fuse together to form a new atomic | | | | starting a fusion process seems to be the same |
| nucleus. The new nucleus is held together by the | | | | density as in liquid pure deuterium. Since there is |
| strong forces between the heavy particles, | | | | no fusion process in liquid deuterium, the crystal |
| protons and neutrons. These forces are so strong | | | | lattice probably packs the deuterium kernels |
| that they win over the repulsing electromagnetic | | | | together in tight sub-microscopic groups with |
| forces between protons. | | | | much greater density than the average density in |
| However, the strong forces only work at a short | | | | the lattice as a whole, and thus allowing quantum |
| distance. Therefore the nucleons (neutrons and | | | | mechanical tunnelling between the kernels in the |
| protons) must be brought very close together. | | | | groups. |
| This is difficult because of the repulsing | | | | There are other electrolytic solutions than that |
| electromagnetic forces between the protons. In | | | | used by Fleischman and Pons that can be used in |
| traditional fusion this is achieved by very high | | | | combination with palladium electrodes to obtain |
| pressure and temperature in the fusing material. | | | | cold fusion. By electrolysing a solution of KCL/LiCL |
| The mass of a helium nucleus (consisting of two | | | | Lid using a palladium anode, signs pointing at cold |
| protons and two neutrons) and other light nuclei | | | | fusion have been reported, but many attempts of |
| are less than the mass of the same number of | | | | reproducing the results have failed. |
| free protons, neutrons or deuterium nuclei. A | | | | Any force that is able to push enough D+ ions |
| deuterium nucleus consists of on proton and one | | | | into the right types of metal crystal lattice, can be |
| neutron. Heavy water contains deuterium instead | | | | used to deliver cold fusion. For example can signs |
| of ordinary hydrogen and is therefore designed | | | | of fusion be produced by bombarding the right |
| D2O. When fusion takes place, this mass | | | | kind of metallic lattice with accelerated D+ - ions. |
| difference cannot be lost. It is converted to | | | | By an electrical discharge between palladium |
| kinetic energy and gamma radiation. Therefore | | | | electrodes in a deuterium gas, signs of fusion |
| fusion of protons, neutrons or kernels of the very | | | | have been seen. By such a discharge, plasma |
| lightest elements into heavier elements is a very | | | | consisting of D+ ions and electrons will be formed |
| potent energy source. | | | | between the electrodes. The D+ ions will be |
| One has not been able to make a controlled | | | | attracted to the surface of the negative |
| fusion by high temperature and pressure that | | | | electrode, and a high density of D+ will occur at |
| yields more energy than the input energy yet. | | | | this surface. Since also these D+ -ions will have a |
| The only practical way one has managed to | | | | high thermic energy; many of them will be thrown |
| exploit the energy from warm fusion is the | | | | very near each other. Quantum-mechanical |
| hydrogen bomb. | | | | tunnelling can then do the rest of the approaching |
| THE PROCESS BEHIND COLD FUSION | | | | process, so that fusion can take place. |
| There is no fully developed model for cold fusion | | | | Also high pressure can be used to push enough |
| yet. The hypothesis behind the phenomenon is | | | | deuterium into a metal lattice to give fusion. For |
| however very simple: All particles behave | | | | example, by having finely divided palladium grains |
| according to quantum mechanical laws. These laws | | | | in a pressurized deuterium gas, signs of fusion |
| say that the coordinates and energy state of a | | | | have been produced, and replicated by other |
| particle at one point in time determine the | | | | scientists. |
| probability of finding a particle a place with some | | | | Also by reactions where nickel metal and H2 |
| given coordinates at another point of time, but | | | | combine, signs of fusion have been detected. |
| the exact place cannot be predicted. Actually, a | | | | Even though H2 and not D2 has been used, the |
| particle can be found anywhere at that other time | | | | reaction has still been reported to take place. This |
| point, put all places do not have the same | | | | points to a very different reaction mechanism |
| probability. Some places are very probable, and | | | | than that of warm fusion. Some scientists |
| others are very improbable. Because of this, even | | | | speculate that hydrogen atoms can exist in |
| a particle that is not in any net motion | | | | quantum states where the electron and proton |
| nevertheless will shift place randomly to some | | | | are so near each other that the atom reacts like |
| extend, usually very little, but sometimes more. | | | | a neutron. |
| By bringing particles and nuclei very near each | | | | MICROSCOPIC WARM FUSION IN OSCILLATING |
| other by using some force, this will happen: The | | | | SONOLUMINATING GAS BUBBLES |
| quantum mechanical behaviour will as always | | | | By bombarding gas bubbles in a liquid by ultrasonic |
| make the particles shift their position more or less | | | | waves, the bubbles can be brought into an |
| all the time, and sometimes they get near enough | | | | extreme oscillation of expansions and collapses |
| to let the strong nuclear forces to take action | | | | synchronized with the sound frequency. |
| and make them fuse. | | | | Such oscillating bobbles can send out light by |
| According to standard understanding of the | | | | certain frequencies of expansions and collapses, |
| standard theory, this cannot happen in such a | | | | and by the right compositions of the gas. By each |
| degree to be detected. Still it does. Either the | | | | collapse, the spot temperature in the bobble can |
| standard theory is not complete, or one has not | | | | reach as much as 10 mill degrees, even though |
| learned to use the theory in a right fashion. The | | | | the average temperature in the total blending is |
| mathematical apparatus of the theory is so | | | | near room temperature. |
| complicated, that it is impossible to predict what | | | | When deuterium is present in the oscillating |
| can happen and what cannot happen with a short | | | | bobbles, fusion has been observed. This fusion is |
| glance at the equations. | | | | strictly not cold fusion, but resembles hot fusion, |
| Cold fusion differs in many aspects from warm | | | | and the process sends out neutrons, gamma-rays |
| fusion. It is difficult to produce warm fusion of | | | | and tritium atoms as predicted by standard |
| other things than one deuterium and one tritium | | | | understanding. |
| kernel. By cold fusion, two deuterium kernels | | | | The process has not been reported to produce |
| easily fuse to helium, and even fusion involving | | | | more energy that that put in, but is confirmed by |
| hydrogen kernels (free protons) have been | | | | independent investigators. |
| reported. | | | | COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL |
| Output of neutrons (n), tritium (T), protons (p) | | | | Cold fusion in crystal lattices has been shown to |
| and gamma radiation has been reported by cold | | | | produce more energy than that put in. |
| fusion, but not in the amount predicted by | | | | Experimental 1 MW or more experimental |
| standard understanding. These are the reactions | | | | reactors has been set up and demonstrated. |
| that standard understanding predicts when two | | | | Commercial reactors are by now being developed, |
| deuterium kernels fuse: D + D --> 3He + n, D | | | | but no one has yet been able to show a reactor |
| + D --> T + p, D + D --> 4He + gamma | | | | with stabile enough operation to be sold on the |
| photon. | | | | market. Commercial household heaters seem to |
| THE ORIGINAL PONS-FLEISCHMAN SYSTEM | | | | be the first type of reactors these companies try |
| The original experiment exerted by Pons and | | | | to develop. The hope of the companies is that |
| Fleischmann consisted of these elements: A | | | | these will make a way for greater reactors and |
| palladium cathode, a nickel anode and a solution of | | | | uses in the market. |
| sodium deuteride NaOD (20%) in heavy water | | | | By now it is not easy to see how successful cold |
| D2O. Sodium deuteride is sodium hydroxide with | | | | fusion will be in the energy market. Cold fusion |
| heavy hydrogen (deuterium) in the OH- ion, and | | | | may make a revolution that gives the world |
| therefore designed as OD-. | | | | cheap clean energy in enormous quantities, but no |
| When electricity was applied to this electrolytic | | | | one knows yet. |
| system, deuterium atoms were produced at the | | | | |